He refers in advance to Orlando’s destruction of Biserta, the capital of King Agramante, and no doubt the invaders of France were doomed to defeat; but how Orlando would have fared in his love for Angelica it is difficult to guess. Boiardo seems towards the end to be tiring of this theme and to be more interested in the development of a new love story: that of the woman warrior, Bradamante, whom he creates (adding her to the Montalbano family as a sister of Rinaldo), and the pagan knight, Ruggiero. These two, destined ultimately to marry, are indicated as the progenitors of the House of Este. On this suggestion Ariosto seizes, making it one of the major themes of his poem.

Orlando in love appears towards the end to be evading Boiardo’s control. He is scarcely rational at times – as Boiardo admits, saying that love had fired his spirit with madness. Yet at times, Orlando seems almost to forget that he has vowed to win Angelica at all costs. He is easily distracted from this purpose, and by no means faithful to her. He is led astray and deceived by the treacherous Orrigille (who reappears in the Furioso, but as the deceitful mistress of Grifone, not of Orlando). She tells Orlando that if he climbs a certain rock and looks down a hole he will see all Hell and Paradise. When he mounts credulously to the top (a credulousness which Ariosto gives to Bradamante in a similar situation), she rides away on his horse, saying she hopes he is good at walking. As he goes on his way he curses all women, then immediately strikes his mouth for uttering such a blasphemy: for the sake of Angelica, all her sex is above reproach. This shows a total lack of judgement on the part of Orlando, for Angelica herself has just sent him on a mission which she hopes will end in his death. It is in this maze of error that Ariosto finds Orlando when he takes up the story.

iii. CLASSICAL

The Classical element in the poem may be considered under two heads: namely, content and form. As regards the first, readers who are familiar with the Aeneid will notice the extent to which this grave and solemn epic has been laid under contribution. Ruggiero plays a role comparable to that of Aeneas: he is the ancestor of the Estensi as Aeneas is of Augustus. The conjuration in Merlin’s cave of spirits representing the descendants of Ruggiero and Bradamante corresponds to the vision which Aeneas has of the Julian line in the Elysian fields. Merlin, Melissa and Atlante, although Arthurian in origin or inspiration, are the equivalents of the prophetic and oracular beings in the Aeneid. Astolfo transformed into a myrtle is a descendant, via Dante’s Pier delle Vigne, of Polydorus. Rodomonte is the Mezentius of the pagans; when he leaps over the defences of Paris he recalls Turnus who penetrates into the camp of the followers of Aeneas. Medoro and Cloridano in their midnight search of the battlefield for the body of Dardinello recall the attempt of Nisus and Euryalus to reach Aeneas. Alcina is another Circe, with a suggestion of Dido in her desperation on Ruggiero’s departure. The presence of these august retro-figures lends a venerable aura to the eighth-century story, which in its turn projects its own magnified stature upon events of the early sixteenth century.

Ariosto has drawn plentifully also upon Ovid. Olimpia’s lamentations on being deserted by Bireno, echoed by the caves, are themselves an echo of Ariadne’s cries on the island of Naxos. Much poetic ornament is derived too from Catullus, Horace and Statius. His indebtedness to all his predecessors, both medieval and ancient, has been exhaustively examined by Pio Rajna in his monumental work, Le Fonti dell’Orlando Furioso (The Sources of ‘Orlando Furioso’), which leaves no doubt that Ariosto’s achievement was one of combining, shaping, transforming, adapting, translating and, in the final analysis, recreating material which already existed.

The influence of the Iliad may be seen in certain types of episode. The parades of the British and of the pagan troops recall the review of Greek and Trojan forces; duels between rivals for possession of Angelica have their antecedence in the combat between Paris and Menelaus; Aphrodite’s intercession on behalf of Paris is reflected in Atlante’s protection of Ruggiero; the search by Medoro and Cloridano has its antecedent not only in the expedition of Nisus and Euryalus but also in the night prowl of Dolon; the battles outside Paris have their prototype in the battle which begins when Pandarus breaks the truce; Strife personified becomes Dame Discord; the love-making of Paris and Helen is the archetype of the many love scenes in which Orlando Furioso abounds.

Ariosto’s indebtedness to Homer is, however, more one of atmosphere than of incident. Echoes of similes from both the Odyssey and the Iliad charge the romance with the heroic ferocity of a primitive antiquity. Elemental forces, the dawn, the sea, storms, grief, destiny and death are shown against a vast, Homeric horizon. This was a hazardous dimension to introduce as it might have dwarfed the Carolingian personages and their events.