O surprising stupidity, and want of shame! But come, let us omit the works of nature. Let us contemplate what she hath done, as it were, by the bye. What is more useless than the hairs which grow on the chin? And yet, hath she not made use even of these in the most becoming manner possibly? Hath she not by these distinguished the sexes? Doth not nature in each of us call out, even at a distance, I am a man; approach and address me as such; inquire no farther; see the characteristic. On the other hand, with regard to women, as she hath mixed something softer in their voice, so she hath deprived them of a beard. But no, to be sure, the animal should have been left undistinguished, and each of us obliged to proclaim, I am a man! But why is not this characteristic beautiful and becoming and venerable? How much more beautiful than the comb of cocks; how much more noble than the mane of lions! Therefore, we ought to have preserved the divine characteristics; we ought not to have rejected them, nor confounded, as much as in us lay, the distinct sexes.

§ 3. Are these the only works of providence, with regard to us…1 And what words can proportionably express our applause and praise? For, if we had any understanding, ought we not both, in public and in private, incessantly to sing hymns, and speak well of the Deity, and rehearse his benefits? Ought we not, whether we are digging, or ploughing, or eating, to sing the hymn to God? Great is God, who has supplied us with these instruments to till the ground: great is God, who has given us hands, a power of swallowing, a stomach: who has given us to grow insensibly, to breathe in sleep. Even these things we ought upon every occasion to celebrate; but to make it the subject of the greatest and most divine hymn, that he has given us the faculty of apprehending them, and using them in a proper way. Well then: because the most of you are blind and insensible, was it not necessary that there should be some one to fill this station, and give out, for all men, the hymn to God? For what else can I, a lame old man, do but sing hymns to God? If I was a nightingale, I would act the part of a nightingale: if a swan,2 the part of a swan. But, since I am a reasonable creature, it is my duty to praise God. This is my business. I do it. Nor will I ever desert this post as long as it is vouchsafed me; and I exhort you to join in the same song.3

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Chapter XVII

That the Art of Reasoning Is Necessary

§ 1. SINCE it is reason which sets in order and finishes all other things, it ought not itself to be left in disorder. But by what shall it be set in order?

Evidently either by itself, or by something else.

Well: either that too is reason, or there is something else superior to reason (which is impossible): and if it be reason, what, again, shall set that in order? For, if reason can set itself in order in one case, it can in another; and, if we will still require anything further, it will be infinite and without end.

But the more urgent necessity is to cure [our opinions, passions] and the like.1

Would you hear about these, therefore? Well, hear. But then, if you should say to me, 'I cannot tell whether your arguments are true or false '; and if I should happen to express myself doubtfully, and you should say, "Distinguish," I will bear with you no longer; but will retort your own words upon you, "The more urgent necessity is," etc. Therefore, I suppose, the art of reasoning is first settled; just as, before the measuring of corn, we settle the measure. For, unless we first determine what a bushel and what a balance is, how shall we be able to measure or weigh? Thus, in the present case, unless we have first learnt and accurately examined that which is the criterion of other things, and by which other things are learnt, how shall we be able accurately to learn anything else? And how is it possible? Well, a bushel, however, is only wood, a thing of no value in itself; but it measures corn. And logic (you say) is of no value in itself. That we will consider hereafter. Let us, for the present, then, make the concession. It is enough that it distinguishes and examines, and, as one may say, measures and weighs all other things. Who says this? Is it only Chrysippus and Zeno and Cleanthes? And doth not Antisthenes say it? And who is it, then, who has written that the beginning of a right education is the examination of words? Doth not Socrates say it? Of whom, then, doth Xenophon write, that he began by the examination of words, what each signified?2

§ 2. Is this, then, the great and admirable thing, to understand or interpret Chrysippus?

Who says that it is? But what, then, is the admirable thing?

To understand the will of nature.

Well, then, do you apprehend it of yourself? In that case, what need have you for any one else? For, if it be true, that men never err but involuntarily, and you have learnt the truth, you must necessarily act right.

But, indeed, I do not apprehend the will of nature.

Who, then, shall interpret that?

They say Chrysippus.3 I go and inquire what this interpreter of nature says. I begin not to understand his meaning. I seek one to interpret that. Here explain how this is expressed, and as if it were put into Latin. How, then, doth a supercilious self-opinion belong to the interpreter?

Indeed, it doth not justly belong to Chrysippus himself, if he only interprets the will of nature, and doth not follow it; and much less to his interpreter. For we have no need of Chrysippus on his own account, but that by his means we may apprehend the will of nature; nor do we need a diviner on his own account, but that by his assistance we hope to understand future events, and what is signified by the gods; nor the entrails of the victims on their own account, but on the account of what is signified by them; neither is it the raven or the crow that we admire, but the god who delivers his significations by their means. I come, therefore, to the diviner and interpreter of these things, and say, "Inspect the entrails for me: what is signified to me?" Having taken and laid them open, he thus interprets them:—You have a choice, man, incapable of being restrained or compelled. This is written here in the entrails. I will show you this first in the faculty of assent.