In Caesar’s time it marked the boundary between Italy and GauL In crossing it (January 11, 49 B.C.), Caesar left his province without permission of the senate, thus precipitating civil war.

 

64-66. Before the year was out Caesar struck Ilerda in Spain, defeating Pompey’s lieutenants. (Note that in this case the eagle is striking against the eagle, for Pompey’s cohorts also carried the Roman standard.) In the next year Caesar laid siege to Pompey in Dyrrachium (modern Durres in Albania), broke off, and then engaged Pompey again at Pharsalus in Thessaly (August 9, 48 B.C.), this time winning a great victory. even the Nile felt the pain: Because Pompey fled to Egypt and was killed there by Ptolemy.

 

67-69. Antandros is a coastal town near Troy. The Simoïs is a nearby river. Aeneas sailed from Antandros when he brought the eagle to Italy. After Pompey’s death, Caesar visited Troy. Thus the Eagle saw its homeland again. From Troy (“Woe to Ptolemy”) Caesar moved to Egypt, defeated Ptolemy, and gave Egypt to Cleopatra.

 

70-72. Led by Caesar, the Eagle next overthrew Juba, king of Numidia (46 B.C.) under whom fourteen republican legions had formed. In the next year he struck again at Spain (“on your West”) where Pompey’s two sons had gathered a new army.

 

73-78. Augustus, Caesar’s nephew, was “its next great chief.” After Caesar’s murder led by Cassius and Brutus, Augustus became the standard-bearer. He defeated Marc Antony at Modena in 43 B.C., then formed an alliance with him, and the two together finished Brutus and Cassius at Philippi in 42 B.C. In 41 B.C. Augustus defeated Marc Antony’s brother Lucius at Perugia. And in 31 B.C. Augustus defeated Marc Antony at Actium. Antony committed suicide soon after his defeat, and Cleopatra did the same when she heard the news.

 

79-81. him: Augustus. far as the Red Sea: The limit of the Empire. Augustus was now undisputed ruler of all Rome and the Empire was at peace. Janus: The gates of his temple were always open in time of war. Now they were closed (as they had been only twice before) to indicate peace throughout the Empire. Thus the serene time was set for the birth of Christ, the Prince of Peace.

 

85-90. Tiberius was the third Caesar. The great glory given the eagle in his reign was the Crucifixion, for thereby the sin of Adam was wiped clean and the gates of Heaven were opened to redeemed mankind.

 

91-93. Under Titus, the fourth Caesar, Jerusalem was taken in a bloody conquest which Dante saw as a vengeance taken for a just vengeance. His argument would probably run that it was just to exact vengeance for Adam’s sin and that God sent His only begotten son to mankind for that purpose. Yet, in exacting a vengeance upon the man, the Jews also offended the god, and it is just that they be made to suffer for that crime against God.