Long, 1902, 1903; Temple Classics (E. Carter), 1899. Manual, J. Sanford (from the French), 1567; and Cebes, J. Healey, 1610; with addition of Theophrastus' Characters, 1616; H. M'Cormac, 1844. Life and Philosophy, with Cebes, J. Davies (from the French), 1670; Epictetus, his morals, with Simplicius, his comment, G. Stanhope, I694; with life by Boileau, 1700, and other later editions; Morals, with Life, 1805.

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Translator's Introduction

§ 1. THE Stoic sect was founded by Zeno, about three hundred years before the Christian era, and flourished in great reputation till the declension of the Roman Empire. A complete history of this philosophy would be the work of a large volume; and nothing further is intended here than such a summary view of it as may be of use to give a clearer notion of those passages in Epictetus, a strict professor of it, which allude to some of its peculiar doctrines.

§ 2. That the end of man is to live conformably to nature was universally agreed on amongst all the philosophers; but in what that conformity to nature consists was the point in dispute. The Epicureans maintained that it consisted in pleasure, of which they constituted sense the judge.1 The Stoics, on the contrary, placed it in an absolute perfection of the soul. Neither of them seem to have understood man in his mixed capacity; but while the first debased him to a mere animal, the last exalted him to a pure intelligence, and both considered him as independent, uncorrupted, and sufficient, either by height of virtue or by well-regulated indulgence, to his own happiness. The Stoical excess was more useful to the public, as it often produced great and noble efforts towards that perfection to which it was supposed possible for human nature to arrive. Yet, at the same time, by flattering man with false and presumptuous ideas of his own power and excellence, it tempted even the best to pride; a vice not only dreadfully mischievous in human society, but perhaps, of all others, the most insuperable bar to real inward improvement.

§ 3. Epictetus often mentions three topics, or classes, under which the whole of moral philosophy is comprehended. These are the Desires and Aversions, the Pursuits and Avoidances, or the exercise of the active powers, and the Assents of the understanding.

§ 4. The desires and Aversions were considered as simple affections of the mind, arising from the apprehension that anything was conducive to happiness, or the contrary. The first care of a proficient in philosophy was, to regulate these in such a manner as never to be disappointed of the one, or incur the other; a point no otherwise attainable than by regarding all externals as absolutely indifferent. Good must always be the object of Desire, and Evil of Aversion. The person, then, who considers life, health, ease, friends, reputation, etc. as Good, and their contraries as Evil, must necessarily desire the one, and be averse to the other; and, consequently, must often find his Desire disappointed, and his Aversion incurred. The Stoics, therefore, restrained Good and Evil to Virtue and Vice alone; and excluded all externals from any share in human happiness, which they made entirely dependent on a right choice. From this regulation of the Desires and Aversions follows that freedom from perturbation, grief, anger, pity, etc.; and in short, that universal apathy which they everywhere strongly inculcate.

§ 5. The next step to Stoical perfection was, the class of Pursuits and Avoidances 2 As the Desires and Aversions are simple affections, the Pursuits and Avoidances are exertions of the active powers towards the procuring or declining anything. Under this head was comprehended the whole system of moral duties, according to their incomplete ideas of them, and a due regard to it was supposed to ensure a proper behaviour in all the social relations. The constant performance of what these point out naturally followed from a regulation of the Desires and Aversions in the first topic; for where the inclinations are exerted and restrained as they ought, there will be nothing to mislead us in action.

§ 6. The last topic, and the completion of the Stoic character, was that of the Assents.3 As the second was to produce a security from failure in practice, this was to secure an infallibility in judgment, and to guard the mind from ever either admitting a falsehood or dissenting from truth. A wise man in the Stoic scheme was never to be mistaken, or to form any opinion.